Clinical Information

Lynch syndrome/hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) is an autosomal dominant hereditary cancer syndrome associated with germline mutations in the mismatch repair genes MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, and PMS2. Deletions within the 3' end of EPCAM have also been associated with Lynch syndrome/HNPCC, as this leads to inactivation of the MSH2 promoter.

Lynch syndrome/HNPCC is predominantly characterized by significantly increased risks for colorectal and endometrial cancer. The lifetime risk for colorectal cancer is highly variable and dependent on the gene involved. The risk for colorectal cancer associated MLH1 and MSH2 mutations (approximately 50%-80%) is generally higher than the risks associated with mutations in the other Lynch syndrome/HNPCC-related genes, and the lifetime risk for endometrial cancer (approximately 25%-60%) is also highly variable. Other malignancies within the tumor spectrum include gastric cancer, ovarian cancer, hepatobiliary and urinary tract carcinomas, and small bowel cancer. The lifetime risks for these cancers are <15%. Of the 4 mismatch repair genes, mutations within PMS2 confer the lowest risk for any tumor within the Lynch syndrome/HNPCC spectrum.

Several clinical variants of Lynch syndrome/HNPCC have been defined. These include Turcot syndrome, Muir-Torre syndrome, and homozygous mismatch repair mutations (also called constitutional mismatch repair deficiency syndrome). Turcot syndrome and Muir-Torre syndrome are associated with increased risks for cancers within the tumor spectrum described but also include brain and central nervous system malignancies and sebaceous carcinomas, respectively. Homozygous mismatch repair mutations, characterized by the presence of biallelic deleterious mutations within a mismatch repair gene, are associated with a different clinical phenotype defined by hematologic and brain cancers, cafe au lait macules, and childhood colon or small bowel cancer.

There are several strategies for evaluating individuals whose personal or family history of cancer is suggestive of Lynch syndrome/HNPCC. One such strategy involves testing the tumors from suspected individuals for microsatellite instability (MSI) and/or immunohistochemistry (IHC) for the presence or absence of defective DNA mismatch repair. However, it is important to note that the MSI-H tumor phenotype is not restricted to inherited cancer cases; approximately 20% of sporadic colon cancers are MSI-H. Thus, MSI-H does not distinguish between a somatic (sporadic) and a germline (inherited) mutation, nor does it identify which gene is involved. Although IHC analysis is helpful in identifying the responsible gene, it also does not distinguish between somatic and germline defects.

Defective mismatch repair in sporadic colon cancer is most often due to an abnormality in MLH1, and the most common cause of gene inactivation is promoter hypermethylation (epigenetic silencing). A specific mutation in BRAF (V600E) has been shown to be present in approximately 70% of tumors with hypermethylation of the MLH1 promoter. Importantly, the V600E mutation is rarely identified in cases with germline MLH1 mutations. Thus, direct assessment of MLH1 promoter methylation status and testing for the BRAF V600E mutation can be used to help distinguish between a germline mutation and epigenetic/somatic inactivation of MLH1. Tumors that have the BRAF V600E mutation and demonstrate MLH1 promoter hypermethylation are almost certainly sporadic, whereas tumors that show neither are most often caused by an inherited mutation.

However, individuals with tumor hypermethylation may additionally have MLH1 promoter hypermethylation consistent with germline inactivation. Individuals with germline inactivation of MLH1 by promoter hypermethylation are at an increased risk for Lynch syndrome/HNPCC-related tumors. In contrast to sequence mutations in MLH1, current evidence suggests that the risk of transmitting germline MLH1 promoter hypermethylation is <50%.